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  • Monthly, Founded in 1950
    Supervisor:Chinese Academy of Sciences
    Sponsor:Institute of Zoology,Chinese Academy of Sciences
    The Entomological Society of China
    Domestic postal code: 2-153
    Foreign issuance code: Q61
    ISSN 0454-6296
    CN 11-1832/Q
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Photo shows a flying adult of Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) attached by many pollen grains from pumpkin flowers. In this issue (pp. 133-143), the identification and analysis of splice variants of peptidoglycan recognition protein-associated genes in A. mellifera are reported. The photo was taken by Prof. ZHANG Run-Zhi (Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences) in Zhouliangzhuang, Baodi District, Tianjin City on Sept [Detail] ...
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20 February 2025, Volume 68 Issue 2
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RESEARCH PAPERS
Identification and analysis of splice variants of peptidoglycan recognition protein-associated genes in Apis mellifera
FENG Pei-Lin, ZHU Le-Ran, ZANG He, LIU Xiao-Yu, KANG Jing, QIU Jian-Feng, LIU Feng, XU Xi-Jian, LUO Qun, CHEN Da-Fu, GUO Rui, XU Guo-Jun
2025, 68(2):  133-143.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.001
Abstract ( 23 )   PDF (3536KB) ( 15 )   　　
【Aim】 This study aims to systematically identify and analyze the genes related to peptidoglycan recognition proteins (PGRPs) and their splice variants in Apis mellifera, to explore the physicochemical properties and molecular characteristics of PGRP gene splice variants-encoding proteins, and to determine the expression profile of PGRP gene splice variants in response of adult workers of A. mellifera to Nosema ceranae infection, so as to offer the reference and basis for functional study on splice variants of PGRP genes of A. mellifera. 【Methods】Based on the obtained nanopore sequencing data from the midguts of the 8- and 11-day-old adult workers of A. mellifera, the previously identified all full-length transcripts were aligned to the Nr and KEGG databases by using the Blast tool to screen PGRP genes of A. mellifera and their splice variants, and RT-PCR was used to validate the authenticity of the sequences of five splice variants of PGRP genes randomly selected. Gffcompare software was utilized to align the sequences of the identified PGRP genes to the reference genome of A. mellifera, thus optimizing the gene structures. Astalavista software was employed to identify the types of alternative splicing (AS) events in PGRP genes, and AS events were then verified by RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing. Related software was used to predict and analyze the physicochemical properties and molecular characteristics of the proteins encoded by the splice variants of PGRP genes. RT-qPCR was conducted to determine the relative expression levels of PGRP gene splice variants in the midguts of A. mellifera adult workers after inoculation with N. ceranae.【Results】 A total of four PGRP-associated genes (PGRP-3, PGRP-S2, PGRP-LC and PGRP-LB) and their 19 splice variants of A. mellifera were identified. RT-PCR and Sanger sequencing results confirmed the authenticity of expression and sequences of five splice variants (rna14029, ONT.6350.8, ONT.6350.10, rna24089, ONT.6350.7) of PGRP genes. The 5′ and 3′ ends of PGRP-3 (gene10434) were elongated by 8 and 1 055 bp,  respectively, while those of PGRP-S2 (gene10435) were elongated by 27 and 234 bp, respectively. The authenticity of AS events in PGRP-S2 was verified by RT-PCR. The splice variant ONT.6350.2-encoded protein had a molecular formula of C966H1502N272O275S7, an approximate molecular weight of 21 527.63 D, a theoretical isoelectric point (pI) of 8.94, an average hydrophilicity of -0.119, a signal peptide, a PGRP domain and no transmembrane domain. The protein encoded by the splice variant ONT.6350.6 had a molecular formula of C841H1301N243O244S5, an approximate molecular weight of 18 860.46 D, a theoretical pI of 9.14, an average hydrophilicity of -0.324, and no transmembrane domain and signal peptide. PGRP-S2 proteins from A. mellifera and A. cerana were clustered into a single clade on the phylogenetic tree. The expression level of the splice variant ONT.6350.2 in the midguts of adult workers inoculated with N. ceranaewas significantly upregulated at 2 and 4 d post inoculation and extremely significantly upregulated at 3 d post inoculation as compared with that in the midguts of A. mellifera adult workers uninoculated with N. ceranae in the control group. Additionally, the splice variant ONT.6350.6 had the same expression pattern as ONT.6350.2. Moreover, both ONT.6350.2 and ONT.6350.6 in the midguts of adult workers inoculated with N. ceranae exhibited an overall increased expression trend at 1－4 d post inoculation as compared with those in the midguts of A. mellifera adult workers uninoculated with N. ceranae in the control group. 【Conclusion】 This study optimized the structure of PGRP-3 and PGRP-S2 annotated on the A. mellifera reference genome. The splice variant ONT.6350.2-encoded protein is a potential secretary protein, whereas the splice variant ONT.6350.6-encoded protein is a putative intracellular protein. The homology of PGRP-S2 between A. mellifera and A. cerana is the highest. The expression of the splice variants ONT.6350.2 and ONT.6350.6 is activated in response of A. mellifera adult workers to N. ceranae infection.
Analysis of the regulatory role and expression pattern of lncRNA15837 in Apis mellifera ligustica (Hymenoptera: Apidae)
SONG Yu-Xuan, LI Kun-Ze, ZANG He, LIU Xiao-Yu, WU Tao, XU Xi-Jian, LIU Feng, LUO Qun, QIU Jian-Feng, CHEN Da-Fu, GUO Rui
2025, 68(2):  144-153.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.002
Abstract ( 9 )   PDF (2226KB) ( 18 )   　　
【Aim】 The objective of this study is to provide a reference and basis for further exploring the regulatory function and mechanism of lncRNA15837 in Apis mellifera ligustica by analyzing the regulatory mode and role of lncRNA15837 and detecting its expression patterns in different developmental stages and different adult tissues, and in larvae of A. mellifera ligustica in response to Ascosphaera apis infection.【Methods】 Based on the obtained high-quality transcriptome data from the midguts of the 7- and 10-day-old adult workers of A. mellifera ligustica, Miranda, RNAhybrid and TargetScan software was employed to predict lncRNA15837-targeted miRNAs and miRNA-targeted mRNAs, and construction and visualization of the competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) regulatory network were performed using Cytoscape v3.7.1 software. By using Blast tool, target mRNAs were aligned to GO and KEGG databases to gain their corresponding functional and pathway annotations, respectively. The expression of lncRNA15837 in different tissues (antennae, hypopharyngeal glands, brain, cuticle, midgut, fat body and venom gland) of the newly emerged adult workers was confirmed by RT-PCR. RT-qPCR was utilized to detect the expression levels of lncRNA15837 in different developmental stages of workers (eggs, 3-day-old larvae, 1- and 2-day-old prepupae, 4-day-old pupae, and 1-, 2-, 6-, 12-, 15- and 18-day-old adult workers), in different tissues (antennae, pharyngeal glands, brain, cuticle, midgut, fat body and venom gland) of the newly emerged adult workers, and in the guts of the 4-, 5- and 6-day-old larvae after infection of the 3-day-old larvae with Ascosphaera apis. 【Results】 LncRNA15837 could target 29 miRNAs such as ame-miR-21-x and ame-miR-0046-3p and further target 1 559 mRNAs, forming a complex ceRNA network. The aforementioned target mRNAs could be annotated to 436 GO terms, among them 114 target mRNAs were involved in 139 molecular function-related terms, 115 target mRNAs were involved in 257 biological process-related terms, 67 target mRNAs were involved in 40 cellular component-related terms, and could be annotated to 224 KEGG pathways. Among the 1 559 mRNAs, 28 target mRNAs were annotated to cellular immune pathways such as endocytosis, phagocytes and lysosomes, and 157 target mRNAs were annotated to humoral immune pathways such as JAK-STAT, Toll and Imd, NF-kappa B and Toll-like receptor signaling pathways. LncRNA15837 was differentially expressed in eggs, larvae, prepupae, pupae and adults of workers, and its expression level was the lowest in the 1-day-old prepupae but the highest in the 3-day-old larvae. LncRNA15837 was differentially expressed in the antennae, venom gland, brain, midgut, hypopharyngeal glands, fat body and cuticle of the newly emerged adult workers, with the lowest expression level in the fat body and the highest expression level in the venom gland. The expression level of lncRNA15837 in the A. apis-inoculated group was up-regulated in the 4-day-old larval gut and significantly up-regulated in the 5- and 6-day-old larval guts, as compared to that in the larval gut in uninoculated group.【Conclusion】 LncRNA15837 of A. mellifera ligustica potentially regulates cellular immune pathways such as endocytosis, phagocytes and lysosomes, and humoral immune pathways including JAK-STAT, Toll and Imd, NF-kappa B and Toll-like receptor signaling pathways through ceRNA network. lncRNA15837 is specifically and highly expressed in the 3-day-old worker larvae and venom gland of adult workers. The expression of lncRNA15837 in the larval gut of workers is activated by Ascosphaera apis infection, suggesting that lncRNA15837 is a putative regulator in larval response of A. mellifera ligustica to Ascosphaera apis infection.
Effect of larval instars on the gut bacterial composition and diversity of Orthosia songi (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
XU Yang, TANG Ling-Xiao, LÜ Xin-Ran, WANG Kai-Sha, ZHU Ming-Qiang, HE Hong
2025, 68(2):  154-162.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.003
Abstract ( 13 )   PDF (1906KB) ( 11 )   　　
【Aim】Orthosia songi is a monophagous pest damaging Eucommia ulmoides leaves. The objective of this research is to explore the characteristics of the gut bacterial communities of O. songi larvae at different instars.【Methods】 Illumina HiSeq high-throughput sequencing was employed to investigate the composition and diversity of the gut bacteria of the 1st, 3rd and 6th instar larvae of O. songi from Lüeyang, Shaanxi Province and Lingbao, Henan Province. 【Results】 At the phylum level, the gut bacterial communities of O. songi larvae from the two regions were dominated by Pseudomonadota, Cyanobacteriota, Actinomycetota, Bacillota and Bacteroidota, and the abundance of various phyla differed between samples of larvae at different instars. Notably, the abundance of Pseudomonadota decreased and that of Bacillota increased gradually with the increase of the larval instars of O. songi. At the genus level, Acinetobacter was the dominant bacterium, and its abundance also decreased with the increase of the larval instars of O. songi. Diversity analysis result showed that there were no significant differences in the gut bacterial alpha diversity indexes (Shannon index, Simpson index, ACE index and Chao index) among samples of O. songi larvae at different instars, while the beta diversity of the gut bacterial diversity among samples of O. songi larvae at different instars showed significant difference. 【Conclusion】 The results of this study suggest that the gut bacterial community composition of O. songi larvae collected from Lüeyang, Shaanxi Province and Lingbao, Henan Province is similar, but there is significant difference in the gut bacterial community composition among different larval instars, suggesting that the gut microbiota of O. songi larvae is influenced by their growth and developmental stages.
Dominant species and vertical distribution niches of aphids on wheat plants during the ear stage in the Huang-Huai-Hai Region, North China
GAO Qian, YANG Xiu-Li, WU Lin-Yuan, LI Xiang-Rui, ZHU Xun, ZHANG Yun-Hui
2025, 68(2):  163-173.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.004
Abstract ( 20 )   PDF (11175KB) ( 22 )   　　
【Aim】 The wheat ear stage is a critical period for yield formation and also the key time for the occurrence and control of wheat aphids. Understanding the spatial distribution and interspecies competition of wheat aphids in major wheat-producing regions is essential for formulating regional control strategies and implementing precise pest management. 【Methods】 From April 2021 to June 2023, 17 sample points were selected in the Huang-Huai-Hai wheat region, North China. A five-point sampling method was used to investigate the individual number and vertical distribution of Sitobion avenae, Rhopalosiphum padi, Metopolophium dirhodum, and Schizaphis graminum (coded as sp1, sp2, sp3 and sp4, respectively) on wheat plants. Using niche theory, the niche breadth (Bi), niche overlap (L), and interspecies competition coeffient (α) were calculated to analyze the dominant species, niches, and interspecies competition across different wheat-growing regions. 【Results】 The spatial distribution of the four dominant aphid species in the Huang-Huai-Hai wheat-growing region varied greatly. In Xiangyang (Hubei), Nanjing (Jiangsu), and Xinyang, Zhumadian and Zhoukou (Henan), R. padi was the dominant species, accounting for more than 57.10% of the total aphid population. In Luoyang (Henan) and Linfen (Shanxi), S. avenae was the predominant species, with a proportion of exceeding 81.98%. In Puyang (Henan), Liaocheng and Binzhou (Shandong), Handan, Cangzhou, Baoding and Langfang (Hebei), and Yanqing (Beijing), all the four aphid species were present, with S. avenae being dominant, accounting for 47.17%- 67.63%. Meanwhile, M. dirhodum accounted for approximately 20% of aphids, and S. graminum occurred sporadically, with a proportion of below 2.19%. S. avenae primarily inhabited in the wheat ear and on the flag leaves, where its proportion accounting for over 70% of its distribution. In contrast, R. padi was more evenly distributed across the wheat plants, and relatively concentrated in the ear portion portion, the lower the latitude, the higher the proportion of R. padi in the ear portion. M. dirhodum mainly occurred on the middle-upper leaves of wheat plants, while S. graminum was mostly found on the lower-middle leaves of wheat plants. Among the four aphid species, R. padi had the widest niche, with the average niche breadth of 0.5003, followed by S. avenae, M. dirhodum and S. graminum, with the average niche breadths of 0.2677, 0.2531 and 0.2064, respectively. The niche overlap (L) values between the four aphid species were ranked in a descending order as: Lsp1-2(2.0324)>Lsp3-4(1.9238)>Lsp2-3(1.2898)>Lsp1-3(1.2889)>Lsp2-4(1.2585)>Lsp1-4(0.7606). The interspecies competition coefficient (α) results of the four species of wheat aphids were consistent with the niche overlap results, with the average interspecies competition coefficients ranked in a descending order as: αsp1-2 (0.7686)>αsp3-4(0.6948)>αsp1-3(0.5899)>αsp2-3(0.4152)>αsp2-4(0.3841)>αsp1-4(0.2286). 【Conclusion】 S. avenae and R. padi are the dominant aphid species during the wheat ear stage in the Huang-Huai-Hai wheat-growing region. R. padi dominates in low-latitude areas, where its damage to wheat ear is more severe. In high-latitude areas, M. dirhodum ranks second in dominance after S. avenae, while S. graminum has the lowest proportion. Among the four aphid species, R. padi has the widest niche and exhibits a high niche overlap and competition coefficient with S. avenae. Therefore, it is recommended to focus on controlling S. avenae and R. padi in the southern part of the Huang-Huai-Hai Region, and prioritize the control of S. avenae and M. dirhodum in the northern part.
Morphological and biological characteristics of the tea weevil, Myllocerinus aurolineatus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)
FU Nan-Xia, LUO Zong-Xiu, LI Zhao-Qun, BIAN Lei, XIU Chun-Li, ZHOU Li, CHEN Zong-Mao, CAI Xiao-Ming
2025, 68(2):  174-183.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.005
Abstract ( 14 )   PDF (6581KB) ( 21 )   　　
【Aims】 To clarify the morphological and biological characteristics of the tea weevil, Myllocerinus aurolineatus, so as to provide a scientific basis for the accurate identification and the development of green control technologies for this insect pest.【Methods】 M. aurolineatus larvae and adults were reared with field-collected soils and fresh tea branches, respectively, in the laboratory under (25±1) ℃. The main morphological characteristics of M. aurolineatus at various developmental stages were observed under light microscope. Field investigations were conducted to learn the migratory behavior of M. aurolineatus larvae in different soil layers of tea plantation, and the distribution pattern in soil upon pupation. The calling, mating and phototactic behaviors of M. aurolineatus adults were recorded and described with a combination of laboratory observation and behavior test.【Results】The freshly laid eggs of M. aurolineatus are creamy white and gradually turn light yellow. The fleshy larvae have no legs and are usually curved or shaped like the letter C. The naked pupa is milky white with an obvious mouthpart and a pair of wing buds. The mature adults are grayish-black and possess yellowish-green shiny scales and stripes on the sheath wings. And the body size of females is always slightly larger than that of males. M. aurolineatus overwinters in the larval stage in the soil layer of 20-30 cm in depth from the ground and its pupation peak occurs in mid-late April. For pupation, the mature larvae will migrate to the soil layer of 0-10 cm in depth from the ground, and the larvae and pupae in the soil layer of 0-5 cm in depth from the ground accounted for 75.83% of the population. M. aurolineatus adults usually mate from 16:00 to 4:00, and copulate in a “false male-above” position, in which the male sits on top of the female. The whole mating period lasts for 44-132 min, and the mating procedure consists of four stages including pre-copulation, copulation, insemination and post-copulatory mate guarding. In addition, both female and male adults of M. aurolineatus are strongly phototactic in the evening. 【Conclusion】In the present study, the main morphological characteristics of M. aurolineatus at various developmental stages have been clarified, and the vertical migrating behaviors of larvae in the soil of the tea plantation and the vertical distribution patterns in different soil layers during the peak period of pupation have been examined. In addition, the mating and phototactic behaviors of the adults have been preliminarily revealed. The results not only provide references for the accurate identification of M. aurolineatus, but also can give theoretical supports for the development of green control technologies.
Effects of sex pheromone on the EAG response, mating and reproduction of Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)
LI Ying, CAO Wei-Ye, LIU Chang-Nian, NIU Guo-Fei, WANG Yi, LI Jie, MA Rui-Yan, KONG Wei-Na
2025, 68(2):  184-193.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.006
Abstract ( 21 )   PDF (1732KB) ( 17 )   　　
【Aim】 Grapholita molesta is a fruit pest that poses a significant threat to fruit production globally. Sex-pheromone-mediated mating disruption technology is a highly specific, efficient, non-toxic, and ecologically beneficial control method. The control efficacy of this technology mainly depends on the dosage of sex pheromones and the density of the mating disruption products. This study aims to explore the accurate use of sex-pheromone-mediated mating disruption technology, and to provide new data support for effectively improving the green control level of G. molesta and realizing the safety of fruit production in China. 【Methods】 In this study, G. molesta adults were treated with the sex pheromone containing four components ［(Z)-8-dodecenyl acetate, (E)-8-dodecenyl acetate, (Z)-8-dodecen-l-ol, and dodecanol］ at five different dosages (0.0131, 0.131, 1.31, 13.1 and 131 mg). The electroantennogram (EAG) responses of unmated and once-mated male adults to different dosages of sex pheromone were measured. The number of mating pairs, mating duration and mating day-old age of female and male adults, as well as the change characteristics of the number of eggs laid per female, number of eggs hatched and egg hatching rate were measured in the environments with different dosages of sex pheromone using an indoor cage method. The rate of mating disruption of sex pheromone to G. molesta and the fruit-boring control efficacy were validated in the field. 【Results】 The EAG response results showed that, as the sex pheromone dosage increased, the EAG response of unmated male adults of G. molesta became stronger, reaching the maximum at the dosage of 13.1 mg. However, the sex pheromone dosage had no significant effect on the EAG response of once-mated male adults. Indoor cage test indicated that the sex pheromone at the dosages of 1.31-131 mg significantly reduced the number of mating pairs between female and male adults compared to the control (n-hexane). Although there were no significant differences in mating duration, mating day-old age, and the number of eggs laid per female between the sex pheromone treatment group and the control group, all the five dosages of sex pheromone significantly reduced the number of eggs hatched and egg hatching rate. When pregnant females were directly exposed to different dosages of sex pheromone, the number of eggs laid per female showed no significant change, but the sex pheromone at the dosages of 0.131-131 mg significantly reduced the number of hatched eggs and egg hatching rate compared to the control. In the field, the sex pheromone at the dosage of 131 mg resulted in significantly higher rate of mating disruption and fruit-boring control efficacy against G. molesta than that at the dosage of 13.1 mg. There was no significant difference in the rate of mating disruption or fruit-boring control efficacy against G. molesta between hanging 60 and 90 mating disruption products per 667 m2.【Conclusion】 Considering both control efficacy and economic cost, a sex pheromone dosage of 131 mg with 60 mating disruption products per 667 m2 is suitable for mating disruption technology of G. molesta in the field. These results provide the theoretical basis of mating disruption technology to precisely control G. molesta.
Effects of light-dark cycle and light intensity on the circadian rhythm in oviposition of adult Grapholita molesta (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)
YANG Xiao-Fan, MA Ai-Hong, ZHU Jie, NIU Yi-Ping, RAN Hong-Fan, LU Zi-Yun, LI Jian-Cheng
2025, 68(2):  194-202.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.007
Abstract ( 22 )   PDF (1469KB) ( 16 )   　　
【Aim】 This study aims to explore the effects of environmental factors such as photoperiod, sunset time and light intensity in the light-dark cycle on the circadian rhythm in oviposition of Grapholita molesta adults, and to provide a basis for developing control measures based on light interference with oviposition. 【Methods】 The circadian rhythm in oviposition of G. molesta adults was observed under natural light environment in the field in spring, summer and autumn, and the differences in oviposition rhythm were compared and analyzed under different photoperiods (15L∶9D, 14L∶10D and 13L∶11D), simulated sunset time (19:00 and 16:00) and different intensities (1 000, 500, 100, 50, 10, 5, 1, 0.5 and 0.1 mW/m2) of dim light interruption (1 h) in artificial climate chambers. 【Results】 G. molesta adults showed obvious oviposition rhythm under natural light environment in the field. In spring, summer and autumn (the sunset time was 18:30, 19:30 and 18:30, respectively), the oviposition peaks of G. molesta adults occurred at 18:00-19:00, 19:00-20:00 and 18:00-19:00, respectively, i. e., within 0.5 h before and after sunset. During this period, the light intensity changed dramatically, rapidly decreasing from 10 000 mW/m2 to 0.01 mW/m2. There was no obvious difference in oviposition rhythm of G. molesta adults under different photoperiods (15L∶9D, 14L∶10D and 13L∶11D) at the same sunset time, showing a similar “unimodal” curve. When the simulated sunset time was 19:00 and 16:00, the oviposition rhythms of G. molesta adults were obviously different, and the oviposition peaks occurred at 19:00-20:00 and 16:00-17:00, respectively, i. e., 1 h after sunset, accounting for more than 54% of the daily total number of eggs laid. The oviposition rhythm of G. molesta adults changed under the dim light interruption environment before sunset. Compared with the “bimodal” curve with small front and large back under 1 000, 500 and 100 mW/m2 of dim light interruption, the “bimodal” curve with large front and small back was observed in the oviposition rhythm of adults under 50, 10, 5, 1, 0.5 and 0.1 mW/m2 of dim light interruption, with the oviposition peak occurring at 16:00-17:00 (i. e., during the dim light interruption period)(more than 40% of oviposition percentage), followed by that at 19:00-20:00. There were significant differences in the daily numbers of eggs laid per female under different intensities of dim light interruption, with the highest daily numbers of eggs laid per female (33.05 and 31.00 grains, respectively) under 0.5 and 0.1 mW/m2 of dim light interruption， respectively.【Conclusion】Light-dark cycle and light intensity can affect the circadian rhythm in oviposition of G. molesta adults, and oviposition activities mainly occur in dim light (below 50 mW/m2) or darkness.
Rapid cold hardening response and the fitness of the phytoseiid mite, Neoseiulus setarius (Acari: Phytoseiidae)
REN Pu-Jin, FU Xiao-Tong, LI Yu-Jing, MENG Rui-Xia
2025, 68(2):  203-212.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.008
Abstract ( 14 )   PDF (1675KB) ( 10 )   　　
【Aim】 Neoseiulus setarius, a newly identified predatory mite species discovered in the Inner Mongolia Region, North China, has great potential to control small pests, such as thrips. When predatory mites were released in regions characterized by considerable temperature variations between day and night, a sudden decrease in temperature may potentially influence their predation capacity. Rapid cold hardening(RCH)can improve the cold tolerance of ectotherms. This study aims to explore whether N. setarius has this phenotypic plasticity and its response to short-term low-temperature stress by examining the RCH response of N. setarius and its fitness before and after cold hardening. 【Methods】 The critical temperature (at which the survival rate is below 10%) for female adults of N. setarius to survive was measured. The survival rates of female adults of N. setarius after exposure to different low temperatures (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 ℃) were counted to determine the optimal acclimation temperature and duration. The RCH responses of various developmental stages of N. setarius were also investigated under the optimal acclimation temperature and duration. Moreover, the effects of RCH on the predatory and reproductive potential of female adults of N. setarius were evaluated by using the 1st instar nymphs of Frankliniella intonsa as prey, which were aged 1-2-day-old after hatching from the eggs laid on beans within 1 d. 【Results】 The critical low temperature for survival of female adults of N. setarius was -21 ℃. Exposure to 2.5 ℃ for 2 h was found to be the optimal condition to induce RCH in female adults of N. setarius, effectively increasing their survival rate. There was only 3.33% survival rate when adult females of N. setarius were directly transferred from the room temperature of 25 ℃ to -21 ℃ for 2 h, while the survival rate of adult females was increased to 68.33% after cold hardening at 2.5 ℃ for 2 h and then exposure to -21 ℃ for 2 h. Similarly, the survival rates of other developmental stages of N. setarius significantly increased after cold hardening at 2.5 ℃ for 2 h and then exposure to -21 ℃ for 2 h. The survival rates of non-hardened eggs, larvae, protonymphs, deutonymphs and male adults of N. setarius after exposure to -21 ℃ for 2 h were 6.67%, 21.67%, 1.67%, 5.00% and 5.00%, respectively, while after cold hardening at 2.5 ℃ for 2 h, the survival rates of the corresponding developmental stages of N. setarius after exposure to -21 ℃ for 2 h were increased to 60.00%, 33.33%, 20.00%, 31.67% and 51.67%, respectively. Meanwhile, the predation and oviposition of the female adults of N. setarius on F. intonsa were not reduced after cold hardening. 【Conclusion】 All developmental stages of N. setarius have the ability to respond to RCH. Exposure to 2.5 ℃ for 2 h can improve the cold tolerance of N. setarius without reducing its predation fitness against F. intonsa, which provides a basis for the field releasing of this mite in regions with significant variations in temperature throughout the day.
Inference of higher-level phylogenetic relationships in Cimicomorpha using the genome-scale data
LIN Xing-Yu, JIA Zheng-Nan, TIAN Hong-Yun, LI Meng, SONG Nan
2025, 68(2):  213-222.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.009
Abstract ( 12 )   PDF (2022KB) ( 8 )   　　
【Aim】 The phylogenetic relationships among higher taxonomic groups (family or superfamily) within Cimicomorpha were reconstructed using genome and transcriptome data, with the aim of providing data to further clarify higher-level phylogenetic relationships within Cimicomorpha. 【Methods】 Through high-throughput sequencing technology, we successfully obtained the genome data of Stephanotis nashi and integrated them with publicly available genome and transcriptome data from 38 other species of Heteroptera. Using the software BUSCO, we extracted single-copy orthologous genes from the above species, and constructed six data matrices of varying completeness to study the higher-level phylogenetic relationships within Cimicomorpha. 【Results】 The number of single-copy orthologous genes in Cimicomorpha ranged from 397 to 2 437. In Cimicomorpha, phylogenetic analyses consistently supported the monophyly of Reduvioidea, Naboidea, Cimicoidea, Tingoidea, and Miroidea. The Reduvioidea group formed an independent clade and was sister to a clade consisting of Naboidea, Cimicoidea, Tingoidea, and Miroidea. Additionally, at the family level, the phylogenetic analysis indicated that the families Reduviidae, Nabidae, Anthocoridae, Tingidae and Miridae each represented a monophyletic group, and the families Tingidae and Miridae were sister groups. 【Conclusion】 The results of this study demonstrate the practicality of using genome and transcriptome data in constructing the phylogenetic relationships within Cimicomorpha, and also provide genome and transcriptome data to further understand the higher-level phylogenetic relationships in Cimicomorpha.
Automatic butterfly recognition with center loss and focal loss fused
LI Xiao-Lin, LI Jian-Xiang, CHEN Bin-Bin, WANG Rong, ZHANG Fei-Ping, HUANG Shi-Guo
2025, 68(2):  223-230.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.010
Abstract ( 12 )   PDF (3526KB) ( 11 )   　　
【Aim】 To address the issue of inter-taxon and intra-taxon distribution imbalance leading to the decreased recognition performance in butterfly samples, a multi-loss fused automatic butterfly recognition method is explored. 【Methods】 We used the open source image dataset Butterfly-200, including 200 species of butterflies with the number of images of per species ranging from 30 to 885, as the experimental data. Using cross-entropy loss as the baseline loss, we compared the recognition performance of the algorithms by adding contrastive loss, focal loss, class-balanced loss, sampling, and logit adjustment, respectively. Further, we conducted an ablation study to analyze the effects of combining center loss and focal loss, which mitigated intra-taxon imbalance and inter-taxon imbalance, respectively, on recognition performance. Finally, we proposed a new automatic butterfly recognition method integrating these two types of losses. 【Results】 When the cross-entropy loss was combined with other single losses (except contrastive loss) the algorithms generally exhibited a decline in recognition performance, compared to the cross-entropy loss. Our algorithm, which combined center loss and focal loss with cross-entropy loss, outperformed cross-entropy loss and its combinations with other losses. The accuracy, F1-score, precision, and recall of our algorithm were 91.67%, 90.68%, 91.68% and 90.38%, respectively. An ablation study further confirmed the complementarity of center loss and focal loss, demonstrating that the simultaneous use of these two losses obviously enhanced recognition performance. Additionally, loss combinations with different weights also had a noticeable impact on recognition performance.【Conclusion】 The results of this study demonstrate that the integration of center loss and focal loss alleviate the issues of inter-taxon and intra-taxon distribution imbalance to a certain extent, thereby effectively improving the accuracy of butterfly recognition, and providing an effective auxiliary method for ecological environment monitoring.
Mitochondrial genome characteristics and phylogenetic position of the genus Sclerodermus (Hymenoptera: Bethylidae)
ZHU Deng-Hui, CHENG Huan, LU Feng, HUANG Sha-Ling, ZHOU Cao, ZHANG Bing-Chuan, HE Shu-Lin, LI Fei
2025, 68(2):  231-242.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.011
Abstract ( 21 )   PDF (3122KB) ( 12 )   　　
【Aim】 Sclerodermus spp. are important natural enemies of wood-boring pests in forests in China. The aim of this study is to clarify the taxonomic position of Sclerodermus within Aculeata by sequencing the mitochondrial genomes of four species of Sclerodermus and analyzing their mitochondrial genomic structure and phylogenetic position. 【Methods】 The mitochondrial genomes of four species of Sclerodermus (Sclerodermus alternatusi, Sclerodermus pupariae, Sclerodermus sichuanensis and Sclerodermus sp.) were sequenced using Illumina HiSeq. The mitochondrial genomes were then assembled and annotated to analyze their structural characteristics and base composition. In addition, the phylogenetic position of Bethylidae within Aculeata was analyzed by the phylogenetic tree constructed based on the sequences of 13 protein-coding genes (PCGs)of 46 fully annotated mitochondrial genomes of Hymenoptera species downloaded from NCBI and four mitochondrial genomes from this study by using Bayesian inference (BI) and maximum likelihood (ML) method. 【Results】 The full-length mitochondrial genomes of the four species of Sclerodermus range from 15 000 to 16 000 bp and comprise 37 genes, including 13 PCGs, 2 rRNA genes, 22 tRNA genes, and one non-coding control region. Among the 13 PCGs, the most frequently used amino acids are Ile, Leu, Phe and Met. Of the 22 tRNA genes, only trnS1 lacks the DHU arm, while the remaining 21 tRNA genes form the typical cloverleaf structure. Gene rearrangements were observed in 17 genes of the 37 genes, including 15 tRNA genes and 2 PCGs. The mitochondrial genomes of the four species of Sclerodermus exhibit gene shuffling in trnT-trnP, accompanied by gene inversion in trnT, as compared to those of the other Apocrita insects. The results of the phylogenetic analysis indicated that Bethylidae is monophyletic, with Sclerodermus being the most closely related to Cephalonomia.【Conclusion】 This study provided the mitochondrial genome characteristics of four species of Sclerodermus and demonstrated complex gene rearrangements. Phylogenetic analysis indicates that the Sclerodermus genus belongs to the Bethylidae family, supporting the traditional morphological classification result. The Bethylidae family is monophyletic and the sister to the Mutillidae family. These results lay the foundation for future classification and phylogenetic studies of the Bethylidae family.
REVIEW ARTICLES
Role of symbiotic microorganisms in insect host resistance to pathogen infestation
LIU Zhe, LIU Yi-Lun, CHAI Yi-Qiu, YANG Yi-Zhong, LI Xiao-La, CAI Rui-Hang, LIU You-Gao
2025, 68(2):  243-252.  doi:10.16380/j.kcxb.2025.02.012
Abstract ( 20 )   PDF (1415KB) ( 26 )   　　
 One of the hot topics in entomology today is the symbiotic microorganism-host interactions in insects. Symbiotic microorganisms in insects can not only provide nutrients for the growth and development of the hosts, but also synthesize many active substances that regulate the ecological adaptability, stress resistance, diversity formation, reproduction, and mating behavior of hosts. Despite of their widespread use, microbial insecticides have led to varying degrees of resistance in pests due to the toxicity of their metabolites and their long-term application in the field. The development of this resistance is closely related to the symbiotic microorganisms in pests. In this article, we reviewed the role of insect symbiotic microorganisms in the development of host resistance to adversity stresses, with focuses on the role of insect symbiotic microorganisms in assisting hosts to resist infestation by different species of biocontrol fungi/bacteria, such as Beauveria, Metarhizium, Pandora neoaphidis and Bacillus thuringiensis. In addition, we deeply clarified the defense mechanisms of symbiotic microorganisms against exogenous pathogen infestation. The present studies showed that the symbiotic microorganisms against exogenous pathogens are mainly distributed in the epidermis, antennal glands and gut of insects, and the symbiotic microorganisms such as Pantoea, Pseudomonas, Wolbachia, Citrobacter freundii and Arsenophonus are more prominent in assisting the hosts to fight the pathogen infestation, having a protective effect on various insect hosts. In addition, these symbiotic microorganisms improve the resistance of insects to pathogens mainly through three pathways: Competition for nutrients with exogenous microorganisms, secretion of antimicrobial substances and modulation of the immune system. This article provides new ideas for a comprehensive elucidation of the mutualistic interactions among pathogenic microorganisms, insects and symbiotic microorganisms, and can also serve as a valuable reference for the development of pest biological control strategies based on the regulation of symbiotic relationships.

CONTENTS
Contents of Vol. 68 Issue 2
2025, 68(2):  253-253. 
Abstract ( 9 )   PDF (508KB) ( 3 )   　　
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